How to write college level essays: May 2020

Tuesday, May 26, 2020

The Benefits of Using Free Essay Samples

The Benefits of Using Free Essay SamplesHave you heard of free essay samples? If you have not, there are many great reasons why you should be looking for free essay samples.When it comes to free essay samples, the main reason is that they can give you a lot of free advice that can help you out in solving your problems. For instance, if you have already completed a number of essays and then you wish to write an essay on a topic that you have been considering, the first thing that you can do is get some free essays from sources like the Internet. This can be a lot better than paying someone to write an essay for you or getting a professor to write one for you.Another benefit of using free essay samples is that the entire process of writing an essay is fairly easy. The only difficulty you might experience would be the problem of not knowing which essay to choose. That's when you need the free essays to help you. There are many essays that are available in different formats like the Port able Document Format (PDF), Microsoft Word, and also audio.So, what is the best place to get free samples of essays? Well, it is actually free online.The greatest place to find essay samples is the World Wide Web. On this site, you will be able to access many different essay sample sites. All of these sites are free of charge and allow you to read samples online.Some online essays sites will require you to register to the site so that you can access the sample you want. However, there are other websites that will allow you to get started immediately. They will give you access to their entire database of essays so that you can start writing your own essay.Finally, the best advantage of using essaysamples is that they can provide you with lots of information about the topic you are writing on. This will allow you to be aware of the various concepts and different options that you have in dealing with the topic. It is in the best interest of writers to make use of this type of sample so that they are well prepared when they write their essay.

Saturday, May 16, 2020

The Postal Acceptance Rule in Contract Law - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3202 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Analytical essay Level High school Tags: Contract Law Essay Did you like this example? Introduction An arrangement of a contract needs an agreement; it follows that, in sort for such agreement to be reached. There have to have an offer offered by one party which is accepted by the other. An acceptance is that, a concluding and incompetent expression of consent to the terms of an offer. To determine whether an agreement has been reached under a historical contract theory, an acceptance which matches the offer that has been made is essential. In accordance to an acceptance, the communication of an acceptance can be broken down into a mixture of components depending on the circumstances. An acceptance can be made or through carry out, private courier, silence, electronic communication, internet transaction, and finally, by post. In this current world, communication can take place in many ways. That being said there might be deferred among the sending of an acceptance. The rule functional here is that no communication is successful until it is ack nowledged and understood by the person to whom it is addressed. This however does not valid to the postal rule. The postal rule is an exemption to the general rule that an acceptance must come up to to the attention of the offeror. Fundamentally, this rule can be defined as a rule of contract law that makes exclusion to the common rule and the principle acknowledged was that, a contract is formed the instant the acceptance letter is sent, relatively than when they are communicated. The statute is intended to remove ambiguity from the contract arrangement process. It provides the offeree with assurance that an acceptance once it is posted will be efficient, even though the postal system delays delivery of the acceptance letter away from the offer date. The main cause for this is historical, as at the time when postage of a letter is slower and less dependable than it is today, in this modern century. In the sensible allegation of the postal rule today, it is much easier to establish that a letter of acceptance has been sent than to verify whether it has been acknowledged or reached the attention of the offeror. Definition The postal rule is a theory of contract law that is generally referred to as the mailbox rule. It was created at a time when contracting parties did a large amount of their bargaining from a distance. Bargaining at a distance, typically through the mail, formed a problem, because the parties could not discern at the same time whether they had formed a contract. As a result, a general rule dictating the time of an efficient acceptance was obligatory. Thus, the postal rule was created and stands for the suggestion that acceptance is efficient on dispatch. The postal rule is exclusion to the general rule, which dictates that acceptance is effectual on receipt. The rationale behind the postal rule is that it encourages contracting by parties at a distance by making the person in the position of giving an acceptance just as protected as if the contract was being completed face to face. From the policy perspective, it also fosters the formation of contracts at the earliest possible minute. The postal rule creates an exception to the belief that acceptance is incomplete until it is communicated to the offeror. The postal rule states that acceptance is absolute on posting. This vagueness led to the creation of the postal rule to make contract formation more just for the offeree. By implying the rule, the offereeÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s acceptance is good from the minute it is mailed; in other words, it becomes effective once it is dispatch. By eradicating a lot of the ambiguity involved in bargaining through the mail, the postal rule did what it was intended to do. It created safety for the offeree, and by expansion, it encouraged contracting between two parties when meeting face to face was difficult, if not unattainable. Adam v Lindsell case law is the starting point where postal rule was recognized around 19th century. Adams v Lindsell (1818) Facts: The case concerned two parties in the sale of wool. On September 2nd, the defendants wrote to the plaintiff offering to trade them certain fleeces (wooly coat of sheep) of wool and requiring an answer in the course of post. The defendants misdirected the letter so that the plaintiffs did not receive it until September 5th. The plaintiff posted their acceptance on the same day but it was not received until September 9th. Meanwhile, on September 8th, the defendant, not having received an answer by September 7th as they had expected, sold the wool to someone else. The defendant argued that there could not be a binding contract until the answer was actually received, and until then they were free to sell the wool to another buyer. Held: Law J said that, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œIf that was true it would be impossible to complete any contract through the post, if the defendant was not bound by their offer until the answer was received, then the plaintif f would not be bound until they had received confirmation that the defendant had received their acceptance, and this could go on indefinitely.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [1] Conclusion: The postal rule does not concern to option contracts or permanent offers where acceptance is still efficient only ahead of acceptance. This is because the offeree no longer needs security against consequently mailed revocations of the offer. Result: The plaintiffs succeed in their claim. The defendant had committed a breach of contract. To have a change in mind or withdraw from an offer, or made an offer with someone else is possible by the offeror but nonetheless, the court looked into the manner, business would be better served by giving the offeree assurance, thus the postal rule was formed. This case had created innumerable problems and has led to a creation of the rule. This rule as acknowledged in the common law legal system is: Lord Herschell stated that, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œWhere the circumstances ar e such that it must have been within the contemplation of the parties that, according to the ordinary usages of mankind, the post might be used as a means of communicating the acceptance of an offer, the acceptance is complete as soon as it is posted.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [2] The ambiguity regarding the moment of contract arrangement does not take place in the environment of. In face-to-face communication or in distance contracting there is no vagueness on the moment when the contract is formed because of the immediate method of communication used. In this method of contracting, all parties are conscious of contract wrapping up and they do not face sticky topics for example malfunction of transmission or delay which take place in non instantaneous communications. Certainty The postal rule stated that, certainty is for the acceptor as he knows that there is a binding contract the moment he posts his acceptance letter. The offeror can construct certainty for him by stipulating that he must obtain acceptance before it is requisite or set other such confines. The offeror is in a point to efficiently get rid of the postal rule and if he selects not to then he is subjected to the limitations of postal communication. Household Fire Carriage Accident Insurance Co. v Grant (1879) Fact: The plaintiffÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s company was offered by the defendants to sell their shares to them. The plaintiff fixed the shares to the defendant and sent him a letter to verify. The letter was missing in the post. The liquidator requested that the defendant make the exceptional payments on his shares when the plaintiffÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s company went into bankruptcy. The defendant refused to pay as they stated that there was no binding contract in the first place. Held: There was a binding contract formed. The postal rule had been applied, meaning that it was irrelevant for the defendant to say that there is no binding contract, even though the letter of acceptance was lo st in the post because a binding contract is formed once the letter was actually posted. Thesiger LJ: Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦if the post office be such common agent then it seems to me to follow that as soon as the letter of acceptance is delivered to the post office, the contract is made as complete and binding as if the acceptor had put his letter into the hands of a messenger sent by the offeror himself as his agent to deliver the offer and receive the acceptanceÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[3] Thesiger LJ noted that when communicating by post: Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it is impossibleÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦to adjust conflicting rights between innocent parties, so as to make the consequences of mistake on the part of a mutual agent fall equally on the shoulders of bothÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[3] Bramwell LJ noted the offeror could avoid the postal rule by stating Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"your answer by post is only to bind if it reaches meÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[3] Nevertheless, Yates Building co. Ltd v Pulleyn Son (York) Ltd (1975) stated that every necessity about the manner of acceptance must be visibly stated to be applicable. Yates Building Co. Ltd. V Pulleyn Son (York) (1975) Facts: the defendant contracted the plaintiff an opportunity to buy land, exercisable by notice in writing to be sent by Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œregistered or recorded delivery postÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ . The plaintiff sent a letter compliant to the offer by regular post, which was accepted by the defendant who refused to acknowledge it as valid. Held: It was held that this manner of acceptance was legitimate and was no disadvantage to the offeror, as the manner fixed was only to guarantee the delivery and that had happened. In addition, the verdict in Tinn v Hoffman Co. (1873) defines that where a necessity for a certain category of reply has been made, an evenly efficient manner of communication will also be deemed adequate provided it is just as im mediate and does not disadvantage the offeror. An offer by email could consequently be accepted for example, by telephone. Tinn v Hoffman Co. (1873) Acceptance was requested by return of post. Honeyman J. said: Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œThat does not mean exclusively a reply by letter or return of post, but you may reply by telegram or by verbal message or by any means not later than a letter written by return of post.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ [4] Limitations The postal rule only applies to acceptance and to other communication between contracting parties. The postal rule does not apply where it was unreasonable for the acceptance letter to be sent by post. Quenerduaine v Cole (1883) Fact: The defendant made an offer by telegram which the plaintiff supposed to accept by letter. Held: The postal rule did not apply. The court found that an offer which was prepared by telegram which is an instantaneous kind of way implied that an equally quick acceptance was required. The postal ru le does not apply if the letter was not properly addressed, stamped, and posted. Re London Northern Bank, Ex P. Jones (1900) Fact: Dr. Jones makes an offer to the London Northern Bank. At 7.00 am, a letter of acceptance, being addressed to Dr. Jones, was handed to a postman in a post office foyer. The postman had no right to collect letters, only to deliver post. At 9.30 am, Dr. Jones delivered a letter to the bank revoking his offer. At 7.30 pm, the bankÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s acceptance letter was delivered to Dr. Jones. Held: The postal rule did not relevant as a result of the incorrect posting. A letter must be placed in a mail box or given to a post office employee who is allowed to receive mail. The postal rule can be displaced by the offeror. Holwell Securities Ltd v Hughes (1974) Facts: Facts: Dr. Hughes contracted Holwell Securities an opportunity to acquire his house for Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ £45, 000. The decision was to be exercisable Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"by notice in writ ingÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ within 6 months. Holwell posted a letter exercising the option, five days before the expiry. This letter was never acknowledged by Hughes. Holwell wanted to enforce the decision relying on the postal rule stating the acceptance took place before the expiry of the decision. Held: By requiring Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"notice in writingÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Dr. Hughes had precise that he had to actually accept the communication and had therefore disqualified the postal rule. Acceptance is only effective on communication which is receipt of the letter, when the postal rule does not apply. Retraction In cases where the postal rule applies and acceptance is efficient on posting, is the acceptor party able to retract the acceptance letter before it comes to the consideration of the offeror? Without a doubt, firm appliance of the postal rule defines that retraction of acceptance is impossible as there is a binding contract once a letter is sent. On the other hand, t he postal rule has developed with the purpose of benefit the acceptor so it can be debated that it should not be applied in a way which is disadvantageous to him. For example, if he wishes to change his decision after posting and the offeror has yet to receive his communication of acceptance to inflict the postal rule would be to his loss. It would not cause the offeror to put up with as the removal of acceptance would take place aforementioned to him realizing it had been agreed, so he would not yet have been capable to act ahead it. Allowing retraction can also be seen as making an iniquitous preconceived notion in favor of the acceptor, whom would benefit both from the sureness of the postal rule and be able to make use of retraction to cogitate at the expense of the offeror. An imbalance would subsist where a binding contract is formed by good worth of the postal rule and the acceptor could retract but an offeror is not allowed to revoke the offer. Byrne Co. v Van Tienhov en Co. (1880) Facts: the defendant posted a letter offering goods for sale to the plaintiff on October 1st. However, the defendant revoked the offer which arrived at the plaintiffÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s place on October 20th. By October 11th, the plaintiff had accepted the offer by telegram and had posted a letter confirming the acceptance on October 15th. Held: It was apprehended that the defendantÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s revocation was ineffective until it was received on October 20th. This was too behind schedule as the contract was prepared on the 11th when the plaintiff sent a telegram. Verdict was set for the plaintiff. In Byrne Co. v Van Tienhoven Co. (1880), the courts established the venerable thought that any revocation of an offer must be communicated to the offeree; even though, again there are some exceptions to this statute. The offeror required to communicate this revocation to the offeree himself, though. It is not always possible for a company, or even an indi vidual, to communicate straightly with the other contracting party and this is reflected in the judgment of Dickinson v Dodds (1876) that revocation may be communicated by a dependable third party. Dickinson v Dodds (1876) Facts: Dodds offered to trade his house to Dickinson, the offer being release until Friday, 9 am. On Thursday, Dodds sold the house to Allan. Dickinson was being told about the sale by Berry, the estate agent, and he delivered an acceptance before 9 am Friday. The trial judge awarded Dickinson a ruling of specific performance. The Court of Appeal reversed the decision of the judge. Held: James LJ stated that the plaintiff knew that Dodds was no longer minded to trade the property to him as obvious and undoubtedly as if Dodds had told him in so many words, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…â€œI withdraw the offer.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ This was apparent from the plaintiffÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s own statements. It was lucid that before there was any attempt at acceptance by the plaintiff, he was completely well conscious that Dodds had altered his mind, and that he had indeed agreed to trade the property to Allan. It was not possible, as a result to say there was ever that existence of the same mind between the two parties which is crucial in point of law to the making of an agreement. The issue has also being considered in other jurisdictions. Wenkheim v Arndt (1873) Fact: This case is originated from New Zealand. The plaintiff offered to marry the defendant, which had sent an acceptance by letter. The defendantÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s mother professed to draw back the acceptance by telegram which is prior to the acceptance (acceptance letter) being received by the plaintiff. Held: The retraction was unacceptable. The case is cited to hold up the view that retraction is impossible. Yet, whether the third party was certified was also an concern in this case. Countess of Dunmore v Alexander (1830) Facts: The case was originated from Scotland. A dis agreement over whether communication between two prospective employers had formed a contract to employ a servant. Held: No contract was produced. As a result, it appears that a postal acceptance could be withdrawn by a speedier means. The case is cited to hold up the vision that retraction may be possible. On the other hand, it was a majority decision and the reasoning is very vague. Recommendation In the new world of the 21st century, the technology is ahead of our imagination. The method of forming a contract, say, for instance, an offer, acceptance and the invitation to treat are theoretically depending on the electronic communication. The well-known form of an acceptance in the world nowadays can be made by a simple click by an email. An electronic mail is frequently being seen as a digital requirement of the postal arrangement, of course, in the modern age. Thus, the postal rule can be applied to the acceptance sent by the mail. On the other hand, to settle on whether a postal rule is relevant to the acceptance by mail, some modes of communication advantage from the rule or not needs to be ascertained. The still unending disagreement is that the postal rule only applies when the offer contemplates acceptance by non-instantaneous way of communication. Conclusion In conclusion, it is perhaps the time that postal rules shall be restated for the 21st century. A potential reformulation would focus on the non-instantaneous nature of communications which gain from the rule. Perhaps the new rule should state that, Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The acceptance is effective from the time it leaves the acceptorÃƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s control, where an offer contemplates acceptance by a non-immediate form of communication.Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Such a description would eliminate the need for a trusted third party and would cover all non-instantaneous methods of communication which is also includes those not yet created. It does though necessitate that methods of communication can be divide into instantaneous and non-instantaneous, a difference that may be become distorted with potential technological advances. Reference The postal rule in contract law. Available from: https://www.ockadvocates.com/2013/02/the-postal-rule-in-contract-law/ [Accessed 5 April 2014] Acceptance: postal rule. Available from: https://www.bitsoflaw.org/contract/formation/revision-note/degree/acceptance-postal-rule [Accessed 5 April 2014] The postal rule in English contract law. Available from: https://suite.io/zoe-kirk-robinson/3a99230 [accessed 5April 2014] Relevance of the postal rule of acceptance. Available from: https://www.ukessays.com/essays/law/relevance-of-the-postal-rule-of-acceptance-law-essay.php [Accessed 5 April 2014] What is the postal rule? Available from: https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-postal-rule.htm [Accessed 5 April 2014] Does the postal rule apply to revocation? Available from: https://www.experts123.com/q/does-the-postal-rule-ap [Accessed 5April 2014] Holwell Securities v Hughes. Available from: https://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/Holwell-Securities- [Accessed 5 April 2014] DonÃ¢â‚¬â„¢t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Postal Acceptance Rule in Contract Law" essay for you Create order

The Postal Acceptance Rule in Contract Law - Free Essay Example

Wednesday, May 6, 2020

The Leader Competencies For Face Interactions And Virtual...

Studies agree that the leader competencies for face-to-face interactions and virtual interactions overlap (Dennis, Meola, Hall, 2013; Eissa, Fox, Webster, Kim, 2012; Madlock, 2012; Politis, 2014; Tartell, 2015). There are many similarities but also differences. For example, performance metrics used by leaders to evaluate projects and leadership competencies change drastically when the virtual environment is introduced (p. 49). The research highlighted that strategic leaders must be able to demonstrate, then be able to identify, leader competencies such as interpersonal skills and management skills, along with understanding the degree to which these skills are required for different strategic objectives (Orhan, 2014). Finally,Ã¢â‚¬ ¦show more contentÃ¢â‚¬ ¦83). Cultivating a culture of connectedness requires the ability to keep the task in view while deepening virtual communications using creative methods for active listening and asking probing questions or clarifying questions (Tartell, 2015, p. 10). Virtual communications are also challenged by the sense of anonymity which lends itself to increased social loafing (Zhang, Chen, Latimer, 2011, p. 107). Leadership Skills and Traits. As the degree to which an organization is virtual increases so does the need for the leadership skill of conflict-management (De Paoli Ropo, 2015, p. 65). This stands to reason, since an increase in the virtual nature of an organization leads to an increase in the number of communication channels (Smith, 2014, p. 24). With these challenges in mind, studies show that there are certain personality traits that are important for virtual leaders (Eissa, Fox, Webster, Kim, 2012, pp. 12-14). Savolainen explained that e-leadership requires the ability to communicate presence, tone, and mood in the absence of body language but with the use of technology-mediated communication (Savolainen, 2014, p. 47). Another study found that while there are definitely overlapping traits that are important for both face-to-face and virtual leadership, leaders who work in highly virtual environments are challenged to apply them differently (Dennis, Meola, Hall, 2013, p. 4 8).

Tuesday, May 5, 2020

The Stuxnet Virus free essay sample

Historic data shows that Iran accounted for almost sixty percent of the early infections. According to Siemens, 15 of its customers were identified as having detected the worm on their systems as of Sept. 14. Stuxnet used stolen digital certificates from Realtek Semiconductor and JMicron Technology to legitimately slip through and hide. The certificates also helped keep Stuxnet under the radar. 1. 1 Why are all the fingers pointing to the United States and Israel? Most cyber security experts who have researched this complex attack call it a joint U. S. Israeli operation, which may have also included Germany and Great Britain. It is also a well known fact which, incidentally, has not been denied by either the US. or Israel, that Israeli intelligence tested aspects of the worm using centrifuges identical to Irans at IsraelÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s Dimona complex. Even Siemens the German company cooperated with Idaho National Laboratories in the US to identify the vulnerabilities of computer controllers that the company sells to operate industrial machinery around the world. We will write a custom essay sample on The Stuxnet Virus or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Not too long afterwards, those very vulnerabilities were exploited by Stuxnet. . Why a Cyber Attack? Cyber warfare requires intellect not military might and a country does not have to be a military superpower to wage a cyber attack. Cyber attack tracks are much easier to cover and are easily attributable to another entity. While cyber attacks are only recently been declared by our military and political leadership as acts of war, compared to an actual physical military attack on another country life can go on as usual for most of the citizens on both sides of the conflict without the slightest idea that their country is at war. It does not cost billions of dollars to run or manage and is hardly a long-term commitment of hundreds of thousands of troops and the logistics to support them and their equipment at the front lines. In case of Iran, a cyber attack was the most viable option available to global powers because the Iranian regime did not hesitate to make threats against the United States and Israel should it have been attacked militarily to make it stop trying to produce nuclear weapons. 2. 1 What exactly is Stuxnet designed to do? Graphic: Courtesy of The New York Times, January 15, 2011 Stuxnet is the first malware of its type designed to cross over the cyber Ã¢â‚¬â€œ industrial divide and attacking critical infrastructure like power stations and electricity grids. On 26 September 2010, Irans state news agency reported that computers at its Bushehr nuclear power plant had been infected. The New York Times article, Israeli Test on Worm called Crucial in Iran Nuclear Delay, describes the complex function of Stuxnet in very simple terms: Ã¢â‚¬Å"One part of the program is designed to lie dormant for long periods, and then speed up the machines so that the spinning rotors in the centrifuges wobble and then destroy themselves. Another part, called a Ã¢â‚¬Å"man in the middleÃ¢â‚¬ in the computer world, sends out those false sensor signals to make the system believe everything is running smoothly. That prevents a safety system from kicking in, which would shut down the plant before it could self-destruct. Ã¢â‚¬ The same article further quotes Ralph Langer, widely credited for having solved Stuxnet, as saying: Ã¢â‚¬Å"Code analysis makes it clear hat Stuxnet is not about sending a message or proving a concept,Ã¢â‚¬ and later saying Ã¢â‚¬Å"It is about destroying its targets with utmost determination in military style. Ã¢â‚¬ Stuxnet was designed to seek out its target, cripple it beyond repair without causing any collateral damage; stay lurking in the shadows to continue to strike, all without leaving any conclusive evidence of who sent it on its mission in the first place. Needless to say, it succeeded in its mission. 2. 2 How effective was Stuxnet and why? To sit remotely, thousands of miles away and receive an email update from your smart malware that it has disabled your enemyÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s commercial power grid says something about the power and effectiveness of this new weapon of cyber warfare. By most accounts and estimates damage from the Stuxnet virus has apparently set back the Iranian nuclear program by at least two years. This makes the virus as effective as a military strike, perhaps even more; all this without loss of life, collateral damage, or risk of a full-blown war. 3. History and future of nation state cyber warfare According to the Council on Foreign Relations, although few countries beyond the well-known players like China, Russia, and Israel and a handful of others have historically possessed the capability to launch a full scale cyber attack along the lines of the Stuxnet attack, over one hundred countries have begun to organize cyber warfare units. (Masters, 2011, sec. 2) Across the world, countries are either engaged in cyber battles with their arch enemies or gearing up to bolster their defenses against cyber warfare.